Paestum, Italy

Paestum was a major ancient Greek city on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea in Magna Graecia. After its foundation by Greek colonists under the name of Poseidonia (Ancient Greek: Ποσειδωνία) it was eventually conquered by the Lucanians and later the Romans. The Lucanians renamed it to Paistos and the Romans gave the city its current name. The ruins of Paestum are notable for their three ancient Greek temples which are in a very good state of preservation. Today the remains of the city are found in the modern frazione of the same name, which is part of the comune of Capaccio in the Province of Salerno, Campania, Italy.

Italiano

Fondata dai greci intorno al 600 a.E.V., si chiamava inizialmente Poseidonia, da Poseidone, o Nettuno, dio del mare, al quale la città era stata dedicata. Tra il 400 e il 273 avanti fu occupata dalla popolazione italica dei lucani. Nel 273 divenne colonia romana col nome di Paestum. Ma è indubbio che la fondazione della città fosse preceduta dall'impianto di una fattoria commerciale sulla sponda sinistra e presso la foce del fiume Silaros e che le condizioni malariche del terreno indussero poi i primitivi coloni a spostare il centro abitato verso oriente, su un banco calcareo leggermente rialzato sulla pianura e sul litorale, lungo il corso di un'altro fiume minore (fiume Salso o Capofiume). Dall'impianto primitivo sul Silaros sviluppò il porto marittimo e fluviale della città e presso di esso sorse il Tempio di Era Argiva, che diventò presto uno dei più grandi e venerati santuari dell'Italia antica: circa 50 stadi separavano la città dallo Heraion e dal suo emporio sul fiume.La fine dell’Impero Romano coincise grosso modo con la fine della città. Verso il 500 E.V., infatti, in seguito ad un’epidemia di malaria, aggravata dall’insalubrità del territorio, gli abitanti gradualmente abbandonarono la città. La riscoperta di Paestum risale al 1762, quando fu costruita la strada moderna che l’attraversa tuttora.
ORIGINI DI PAESTUM E PRINCIPALI VICENDE STORICHE
Le colonie greche nel Mediterraneo più importanti furono quelle fondate in Asia Minore e nella Magna Grecia, termine che indica l’insieme delle città fondate dai greci in Italia meridionale e in Sicilia, una delle quali era appunto Paestum. Madrepatria di Paestum era Sibari, fondata nel 720 a.E.V. da achei e trezeni, i quali furono perciò detti sibariti. Questi ultimi erano famosi per la ricchezza, il lusso e la superbia. Lo storico Diodoro Siculo, del I sec. a.E.V., scrisse che ‘i sibariti erano schiavi del ventre e amanti del lusso’. Stradone, geografo greco vissuto tra il 60 e il 20 avanti, racconta che i sibariti avevano creato un insediamento fortificato nei pressi della foce del fiume Sele, estendendo la loro influenza sui territori limitrofi. Siamo a cavallo tra il VII e il VI sec. a.E.V.La fondazione della città si dovette al bisogno che Sibariti ebbero di aprirsi una via commerciale fra lo Ionio e il Tirreno attraverso la dorsale dell'Appennino, evitando il di circumnavigazione della costa calabra e lo stretto di Messina.La colonia, situata in un punto strategico, al centro dell’incrocio delle vie commerciali tra il bacino ionico e le regioni italiche, fu chiamata Poseidonia in onore di Poseidone, dio del mare. Fu nel 510 a.E.V., in seguito alla distruzione di Sibari per opera dei crotonesi, quando molti sibariti fuggirono a Poseidonia con le loro ricchezze, la loro esperienza e il loro spirito di intraprendenza, che la città raggiunse un alto livello di potenza economica e politica. A questo periodo risale la costruzione dei tre templi noti col nome di Basilica, tempio di Poseidone e tempio di Cerere, coevi a quell’unico affresco greco finora scoperto, nella tomba del Tuffatore. Nel V secolo avanti i lucani, popolo italico, cominciarono ad infiltrarsi nella colonia, lasciando numerose testimonianze della propria influenza in tombe affrescate secondo il modello dei maestri greci. Sul finire del IV secolo, alleatisi con i bruzi, sostennero una lunga lotta contro i greci per il dominio dei nuovi territori verso il mare, che si concluse con la riaffermazione della loro supremazia sulla città. Nel 273 a.E.V. i romani occuparono Poseidonia che così divenne la fedele Paestum romana, che si dimostrò vicina a Roma anche nei momenti più drammatici della sua storia. Durante il periodo romano, nel III secolo, le attività economiche e culturali fiorirono nuovamente: sorsero nuovi edifici pubblici, come l’anfiteatro, il foro e il ginnasio, che contribuirono a donare alla città quell’aspetto che gli scavi hanno riportato alla luce.Tra i fattori che portarono al declino di Paestum, la realizzazione di nuove strade per il commercio in Oriente, che finirono per isolare irrimediabilmente la città dalle principali vie commerciali, e l’epidemia di malaria del IX secolo, unita alle scorrerie dei pirati saraceni, che costrinsero i pestani a rifugiarsi sui monti, e ad abbandonare l’antica Poseidonia.

History

According to Strabo the city was founded as Poseidonia by Greek Achaeans from Sybaris. The colonists had built fortifications close to the sea, but then decided to found the city further inland at a higher elevation.The fortifications might have been built to the south of Poseidonia on the promontory where Agropoli is now. According to the historical tradition the sanctuary to Poseidon was located there, after which the city would have been named. The date of Poseidonia's founding is not given by ancient sources, but the archaeological evidence gives a date of approximately 600 BC

Archaeological evidence from Paestum's first centuries indicates the building of roads, temples and other features of a growing city. Coinage, architecture and molded votive figurines all attest to close relations maintained with Metaponto in the sixth and fifth centuries.[citation needed]

It is assumed that Poseidonia harbored refugees from its mother city Sybaris when that city was conquered by Croton in 510 BC. In the early fifth century, Poseidonia's coins adopted the Achaean weight standard and the bull seen on Sybarite coins. A. J. Graham thinks it was plausible that the number of refugees was large enough for some kind of synoecism to have occurred between the Poseidonians and the Sybarites, possibly in the form of a sympolity.

Poseidonia might have had a major share in a new foundation of Sybaris which lasted from 452/1 BC until 446/5 BC. This is suggested by the great resemblance of the coins of Sybaris to those of Poseidonia in this period. Possibly a treaty of friendship between Sybaris, its allies and the Serdaioi (an unknown people) dates to this new foundation, because Poseidonia was the guarantor of this treaty.

Description

The town of Poseidonia - later called Paestum - was built by Greek colonists from Sybaris, an earlier Greek city in southern Italy, in around 600BC. It grew and prospered and now has among the most extensive remains of Magna Graecia (Magna Grecia in Italian).

In 410BC the town was conquered by the Lucanians, a native Italian people, then in 273BC the Romans took over, changed the name to Paestum and began their own building programme. As the Roman Empire collapsed, Paestum crumbled. Malaria and Saracen raids led to the near-abandonment of the town and the development of Capaccio, a safer hillside settlement.

Paestum itself was pretty much forgotten. An information board outside the old church gives a poignant image of the locale as an abandoned wilderness frequented by brigands. Things changed with the eighteenth-century rediscovery of the temples by road-builders coupled with a revival of interest in antiquities and the visits of Grand Tourists and indefatigable travellers like Shelley and Goethe. The classical name Paestum was revived (though Capaccio is still the local authority). Nowadays most of the vanished city of Poseidonia-Paestum is hidden under agricultural land. The ancient city walls, constructed with massive stone blocks, encircle a large area of countryside, much of it unexcavated. Right in the middle is the archaeological zone open to the public, and a few later buildings housing small tourist businesses..

Site Monuments

The oldest and most important sanctuary of the entire region was the Heraion established about 570 B.C. It was not before the 20th century that its fragmentary ruins were discovered 9 km north of Paestum in the proximity of the Sele delta.

There are some hints which attribute its earliest establishment to Jason and the Argonauts.

 Second temple of Hera, also called Poseidon temple

Only a few years later (about 550 B.C.), the oldest of the three temples of Paestum was built, which was also dedicated to the Greek goddess of fertility Hera (the sister and wife of Zeus). Due to an early mistake it is known today as the "Basilica".

First temple of Hera, c. 550 BC

The smallest of the three temples, called the Ceres temple , was dedicated to the goddess Athene and was built about 500 B.C.

 Temple of Athena

The Poseidon temple, (or Neptune temple) is from about 450 B.C. (about the same time the Parthenon in Athens was built). This temple is probably the best preserved Doric temple in the world.
The Neptune temple and Basilica are standing directly next to each other thus offering a quite impressive panorama.

The small Ekklesiasterion (legislation, election of the judge) was preserved from the Greek period of Paestum because the Romans left it under a mound. The Romans established nearby a larger building (comitium) for similar purposes and proceedings.
The small amphitheatre, which is only half excavated, is like nearly all the other buildings (respectively their foundation relics) of Roman origin (1st century   B.C.).
Further excavations around the temples during the last decades uncovered the outlines of the old city inside the town walls. The Roman forum ,  is situated on the southern part of the more expanded Greek agora.

For some buildingfoundations, there are still different interpretations for their original function. The current interpretation becomes difficult because the use of the buildings often mutated with the changes from Greek to Lucanian and finally to Roman inhabitants. This may be illustrated by the following examples: The roof, which can be seen in the following photo, belongs to an underground sanctuary (sacellum , hypogaeum), which is enclosed by an additional wall. From its form, it can be either a grave or a heroon (an empty grave), as it was customary at that time - e.g. in honour of the founder of the city. In fact, this building is from the 6th century B.C.
In another complex, which is interpreted as a gymnasium with swimming pool, some archaeologists assume that the strange stone construction in the pool was a podium for the swimming matches. Others assume that the original gynnasium was transformed after the 3rd century B.C. to a sanctuary of the goddess Fortuna Virilis, at which the stone construction served solemn fertility rites.

The town wall with its 4 gates is 4750 m long. It was built by the Greeks and later fortified by Lucanians and Romans.
Many Lucanian graves were found close to the city (the necropolies always lay outside the walls). These graves formed "small houses". Walls and roofs used to be decorated with skilful frescos.

 The symposium on the north wall.

The most famous of these graves is the grave of the "Tuffatore" (diver), which still comes from the Greek (about 480 B.C.). The scene represented on the roof slab symbolizes an almost harmonious transition from life to death. These and further finds, also of the older Heraion,  at the Sele delta, are shown in the national museum at the excavation grounds.
The excavations and restoration measures still continue today.

 Nomos of Poseidonia, c. 530–500 BC. Poseidon is seen wielding a trident with a chlamys draped over his arms.

COMUNITÀ ELLENICA di NAPOLI e CAMPANIA

Δημοσίευση by Ancient Hellas (Greece).

Paestum, Italy

Delphi, Greece

The myth goes that Zeus decided to establish an oracle at the center of the world. In order to find the suitable location, he let loose two eagles, the first flying towards the East and the second towards the West. The two eagles met above Delphi indicating that this was the center of the world, the omphalos or navel of the earth (Gaia). 

Geographically, Delphi is situated at the heart of central Greece. The valley of the small river Pleistos is the natural passage from eastern to western Greece.  At the same time, topographical studies showed that the road starting from Kirrha, the harbour-city of the Pleistos Valley, and passing through Gravia and the area of Mt. Oeti by way of  Amphissa, connected the  gulf of Krissa with the Malian gulf and Thessaly since the Mycenaean period (1500-1100 BC). 

Delphi was built on the remains of a Mycenaean settlement. Tradition has it that initially there was a temple dedicated to the female goddess of the Earth (Gaia), guarded by the fierce dragon Python. Apollo killed Python and founded his own sanctuary there, manning it with Cretan priests, who arrived in Kirrha, the seaport of Delphi, having followed the god who had transformed himself into a dolphin. This myth was kept alive via ritual reenactments at Delphi, in festivals such as Septeria, Delphinia, Thargelia, Theophania, and the Pythian Games, which were held to commemorate the victory of the god over Python and included musical and gymnastic competitions.

Archaeological excavations have brought to light female figurines and a ritual vessel. This evidence was seen as archaeological proof of the later literary tradition regarding the existence of a "primitive" Oracle with goddess Gaia as its first priestess. This tradition was adopted by the Delphic priesthood and propagated by the poets of the 5th century B.C. Current scholarship questions the historical validity of the myth, considering that dating  the Oracle’s establishment in prehistoric times is merely in accordance with the general  theogonic conception, according to which the Greek pantheon evolved from the chthonic deities into the heavenly gods. 

History

At the foot of Mount Parnassos, within the angle formed by the twin rocks of the Phaedriades, lies the Pan-Hellenic sanctuary of Delphi, which had the most famous oracle of ancient Greece. Delphi was regarded as the centre of the world. According to mythology, it is here that the two eagles sent out by Zeus from the ends of the universe to find the navel of the world met. The sanctuary of Delphi, set within a most spectacular landscape, was for many centuries the cultural and religious centre and symbol of unity for the Hellenic world. The history of Delphi begins in prehistory and in the myths of the ancient Greeks. In the beginning the site was sacred to Mother Earth and was guarded by the terrible serpent Python, who was later killed by Apollo. Apollo's sanctuary was built here by Cretans who arrived at Kirrha, the port of Delphi, accompanied by the god in the form of a dolphin. This myth survived in plays presented during the various Delphic festivals, such as the Septerion, the Delphinia, the Thargelia, the Theophania and, of course. the famous Pythia, which celebrated the death of Python and comprised musical and athletic competitions. 

The earliest finds in the area of Delphi, which date to the Neolithic period (4000 BC), come from the Korykeion Andron, a cave on Parnassos, where the first rituals took place. The remains of a Mycenaean settlement and cemetery were discovered within the sanctuary, but traces of occupation are rare and very fragmentary until the eighth century BC, when the cult of Apollo was established and the development of the sanctuary and the oracle began. The first stone temples of Apollo and Athena, who was also officially venerated under the name of “Pronaia” or “Pronoia” and had her own sanctuary, were built towards the end of the seventh century BC. According to literary and archaeological evidence other gods were associated with the sanctuary; these included Artemis, Poseidon, Dionysus, Hermes, Zeus Polieus, Hygeia and Eileithyia. 

The sanctuary was the centre of the Amphictyonic League, an association of twelve tribes of Thessaly and the Sterea (south-central Greece), with religious and later political significance. The Amphictyonic League controlled the operation and finances of the sanctuary, as it designated its priests and other officials chosen from among the inhabitants of Delphi. In the sixth century BC, under the League's protection and administration, the sanctuary was made autonomous (First Sacred War), it increased its territory and political and religious influence throughout Greece, and reorganised the Pythian Games, the second most important games in Greece after the Olympics, which were held every four years. 

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BC, the Delphic oracle, which was regarded as the most trustworthy, was at its peak. It was delivered by the Pythia, the priestess, and interpreted by the priests of Apollo. Cities, rulers and ordinary individuals alike consulted the oracle, expressing their gratitude with great gifts and spreading its fame around the world. The oracle was thought to have existed since the dawn of time. Indeed, it was believed to have successfully predicted events related to the cataclysm of Deukalion, the Argonaut's expedition and the Trojan War; more certain are the consultations over the founding of the Greek colonies. It was the oracle's fame and prestige that caused two Sacred Wars in the middle of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. In the third century BC, the sanctuary was conquered by the Aetolians, who were driven out by the Romans in 191 BC. In Roman times, the sanctuary was favoured by some emperors and plundered by others, including Sulla in 86 BC. 

The rise of the Rationalist movement in philosophy in the third century BC, damaged the oracle's authority, yet its rituals continued unchanged into the second century AD, when it was consulted by Hadrian and visited by Pausanias. The latter's detailed description of the buildings and more than three hundred statues has greatly contributed to our reconstruction of the area. The Byzantine emperor Theodosius finally abolished the oracle and the Slavs destroyed the precinct in 394 BC. With the advent of Christianity, Delphi became an episcopal see, but was abandoned in the sixth-seventh centuries AD. Soon after, in the seventh century AD, a new village, Kastri, grew over the ruins of the ancient sanctuary, attracting in modern times several travellers interested in antiquities. 

Description

Archaeological research in Delphi began in 1860 by Germans. In 1891, the Greek government granted the French School at Athens permission for long-term excavations on the site. It is then that the village of Kastri was removed to allow for the so-called “Great Excavation' to take place. The Great Excavation uncovered spectacular remains, including about three thousand inscriptions of great importance for our knowledge of public life in ancient Greece. Today, the Greek Archaeological Service and the French School at Athens continue to research, excavate and conserve the two Delphic sanctuaries. Of all the monuments, only the Treasury of the Athenians had enough of its original building material preserved to allow for its almost complete reconstruction. The project was financed by the City of Athens and carried through by the French School in 1903-1906. The Chiot altar, the temple of Apollo and the Tholos were also partially restored. In 1927 and 1930, the poet Angelos Sikelianos and his wife, Eva, attempted to revive the Delphic idea and make of Delphi a new cultural centre of the earth, through a series of events that included performances of ancient theatre.

Site Monuments

Temple of Apollo at Delphi

The temple of Apollo, the most important building in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, dominates the temenos from its central position. This is where the statues and other offerings to the god were kept, and where the cult rituals, including that of divination, took place. Also, here was the chresmographeion, or archive, destroyed in 373 BC, which contained the lists of victors of the Pythian games.

Treasury of the Athenians

The Treasury of the Athenians is one of the most important and impressive buildings of the temenos of Apollo. Standing next to the bouleuterion, seat of the Delphic senate, and opposite the treasuries of the Knidians and the Syracusans, it dominated the Sacred Way. This small building contained trophies from important Athenian victories and other votive objects dedicated to the sanctuary.

The treasury, which was built by the Athenian republic in the late sixth or early fifth centuries BC, is thought to express the victory of democracy over tyranny. A slightly different interpretation, based on Pausanias's description, states that the treasury commemorated the battle of Marathon of 490 BC, when the Athenian army repelled the Persians.

The polygonal wall of Delphi

This remarkable polygonal wall supports the platform on which stands the Temple of Apollo, and defines the area of the Halos, or threshing floor, to the north-west. It was raised in the second half of the sixth century BC, probably after the destruction of the first temple in 548 BC and before the construction of the Alkmaionides temple in 513-505 BC. The fifth century BC Stoa of the Athenians was built against this wall, and traces of it are visible on the wall's surface. Prior to the construction of the wall, the area was leveled and several early Archa?c buildings and treasuries, including the famous apsidal structure, were destroyed or buried under fill.

The Treasury of the Siphnians 

The treasury dedicated by the people of Siphnos was one of the most opulent monuments in the temenos of Apollo. Built near the beginning of the Sacred Way, next to the Treasury of the Sikyonians and opposite that of the Megarians, it housed the precious votive offerings dedicated by the Siphnians to the sanctuary.

According to Herodotus and Pausanias, Siphnos drew great wealth from its gold and silver mines and in the second half of the sixth century BC was the most prosperous of the Greek islands. The Siphnians decided to dedicate the tithe of their profits to Apollo and thus built the treasury. The monument's sculptural decoration is dated on stylistic grounds to 525 BC, or a little earlier, since that year Siphnos was looted by Samians in need of money.

The Stoa of the Athenians

The stoa is among the important votive offerings dedicated to the sanctuary by the Athenians. It occupied a central position, below the great temple, in front of the imposing polygonal terrace wall and opposite the Halos, or threshing floor, where plays honouring Apollo were staged. The stoa was used for storing the war spoils, mostly from naval victories against the Persians, dedicated by the Athenians. 

Ancient theatre of Delphi

 The theatre of Delphi, one of the few theatres in Greece for which we know the exact date and design, is located inside the temenos of Apollo and against the north-east corner of its peribolos, or enclosure wall. This is where the musical contests (song and instrumental music) of the Pythian games and other religious festivals took place, which made this theatre the intellectual and artistic equivalent to the athletic stadium at Olympia.

The Sacred Way

The so-called Sacred Way was the main road leading from the entrance of the temenos to the altar of the Chians and the imposing temple of Apollo. It had a ritual and processional character, since it guided pilgrims and visitors through the sacred precinct. The theopropoi - those wishing to consult the oracle - ascended the Sacred Way on the ninth day of each month, sacrificed an animal on the altar situated at the top and were alloted their place in the queue. The citizens of Corinth, Naxos, Chios and Thebes, and some illustrious individuals, such as Philip II of Macedon, had received promanteia, or right of prior consultation, and so did not have to wait for their turn.

Ancient gymnasium of Delphi

 The remains of the gymnasium are on the steep slope between the Castalian fountain and the temple of Athena Pronaea. This is one of the most complete examples of an ancient gymnasium complex, which included the gymnasium proper, a palaestra and baths.

The gymnasium dates to the fourth century BC, but was rebuilt in the Roman period, when the baths were added to it. Originally it was used exclusively for training athletes. Track and field were practiced inside the gymnasium proper, with events like wrestling, boxing and the pankration taking place inside the palaestra. However, in the Hellenistic period the gymnasium became a centre for intellectual development and housed cultural events, including lectures by orators, sophists, philosophers and poets.

The Castalian fountain

The Castalian spring was the sacred source of Delphi, and its water played an important role in the cult and procedure of the temple and of the oracle. This is where Pythia, the priests and the temple staff washed, and where the water used to clean the temple came from. The theopropoi - those wishing to consult the oracle - were also obliged to wash here in order to purify themselves.

The Castalian spring is located at the foot of the rocky crag Phleboukos (ancient Hyampeia), inside the ravine separating the two Phaedriades. Its waters form a stream, the so-called Arkoudorema, which runs into the Pleistos valley where, according to a myth, the Python had its lair. Water was also channeled to the homonymous fountain situated between the temenos of Apollo and the ancient gymnasium.

Ancient stadium of Delphi

The stadium of Delphi is one of the best-preserved monuments of its kind. It is situated north-west of the theatre, above the sanctuary of Apollo, in the highest part of the ancient city. It was reached in antiquity, like today, by a path winding up from the theatre's left parodos. The stadium is closely connected to the history of the Pythian games, since this is where the athletic events took place.

The original stadium dates to the fifth century BC, as attested by an inscription in the south terrace wall, and had either wooden seats or no seats at all. The existing seats, made of Parnassus limestone - and not of white marble as mentioned by Pausanias, were built in the second century AD by Herodes Atticus, a wealthy Athenian sophist, together with the triumphal arch which decorated the entrance. The latter is a unique feature in ancient Greek stadiums.

The tholos of Athena Pronaia

 The tholos of the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, clearly visible from above, is perhaps the most characteristic monument at Delphi and the most important building of this small sanctuary. Located between the later temple of Athena and the Treasury of Massalia, this circular building of unknown purpose is a masterpiece of Classical architecture. It is thought to have been connected with chthonic cults, although Pausanians, who saw its ruins in the second century AD, does not refer to it as a temple. 

The votive offering of Daochos

 The votive offering of Daochos is one of the richest and finest private offerings dedicated to the Delphi sanctuary. It stood to the northeast of the temple of Apollo, on an elongated stone base, near the offerings of the Aetolians, the Phoceans and the Deinomenides.

This monument was dedicated by Daochos II of Pharsala who was tetrarch of Thessaly, which he represented as hieromnemon at the Amphictyonic League in 339-334 BC. His dealings with the Delphic sanctuary probably led him to dedicate this monument in honour of his family, several members of which were brilliant athletes and winners at the Delphic games. The monument was probably dedicated around 337 BC. The influence of Philip II of Macedon and a personal acquaintance of Daochos, over both the Delphic amphictyony and Thessaly, homeland of Daochos, was intensifying during this period.

Lesche of the Knidians

 The “Lesche” (club”) of the Knidians is a building known more for the paintings that decorated it and less for its architectural style. The monument was an offering to Apollo, by the people of Knidos, an important city-state in Asia Minor. Knidos enjoyed a high level of civilization and was famous for the progress in Medicine; the city had also numerous colonies in Sicily and in Naucratis at Egypt. When the Persians attacked the cities of Asia Minor, the Knidians decided to construct a defensive moat to protect the city from inland attacks. But, as several accidents took place during the construction, they decided to ask the oracle at Delphi if they should continue; the oracle advised them to stop constructing the moat and promised that Apollo would help them to repel the enemy.

Source

http://www.ancienthellas.ga

Delphi, Greece